Clauses & Linking Words (Cause, Effect, Contrast, Purpose)

1. What Are Linking Words?

Linking words connect ideas and sentences.
They help us:

• explain
• compare
• contrast
• give reasons
• show results

For example: “I was tired. I went home early.” → “I was tired, so I went home early.”

2. Reason (Because / Because of)

Used to explain why something happens.

Note: Reason (cause) explains why something happened. Purpose explains why someone does something (their intention).

2.1 Because + clause

because + subject + verb

Examples:

• I stayed home because I was tired.
• She went to bed early because she had a headache.

2.2 Because of + noun

because of + noun / noun phrase

Examples:

• The game was cancelled because of the rain.
• He was late because of traffic.

2.3 Difference Between “Because” and “Because Of”

Because	Because of
followed by a clause	followed by a noun
because he was sick	because of his illness

2.4 As / Since + clause

As and since can introduce a reason that is already known or less important than the main result. Here, since means because, not a point in time.

Examples:

• As the shop was closed, we went home.
• Since everyone is ready, we can begin.

2.5 Due to / Owing to + noun

Due to and owing to are more formal alternatives to because of. Use them before a noun or noun phrase.

• Due to heavy rain, the match was cancelled.
• Owing to a technical problem, the website was unavailable.

3. Contrast

Used to show opposite or unexpected ideas.

3.1 But

Examples:

• I wanted to go, but I was busy.
• She is rich, but she isn’t happy.

3.2 Although

although + clause

Examples:

• Although it was raining, we went outside.
• Although he studied hard, he failed the test.

3.3 However

However is a linking adverb.

Use it in these safe patterns:

• (1) Start a new sentence: However, ...
• (2) In the middle of a sentence: It was, however, ...
• (3) After a semicolon when joining two complete clauses: ...; however, ...

Don’t write: The hotel was expensive, however it was comfortable. (This is usually a comma splice.)

Examples:

• The hotel was expensive; however, it was very comfortable.
• The hotel was expensive. It was, however, very comfortable.

3.4 Even though

even though + clause shows a stronger or more surprising contrast than although.

Examples:

• Even though it was raining heavily, we went outside.
• She finished the race even though she was injured.

3.5 Despite / In spite of

Use despite or in spite of before a noun, noun phrase, or -ing form—not directly before a full clause.

Use despite the fact that + clause when you need to follow despite with a full clause.

Examples:

• Despite the rain, we went outside.
• In spite of feeling tired, he finished the work.
• Despite the fact that it was raining, we went outside.

Compare: “Although it was raining, we went outside.” / “Despite the rain, we went outside.” Although is followed by a clause; despite is followed by a noun phrase.

4. Purpose

Used to explain why we do something.

Remember: because / because of give a reason (cause). to / in order to / so that show an intention (purpose).

4.1 To + infinitive

to + base verb

Examples:

• I went to the shop to buy milk.
• She studies hard to pass her exams.

4.2 In order to + infinitive

More formal.

Examples:

• He saved money in order to travel.
• She left early in order to avoid traffic.

4.3 For + noun / -ing form

for + noun / for + -ing form

(-ing form = verb + ing used like a noun.)

Use to + base verb to say why a person does something. Use for + noun / -ing to say what a thing is used for.

Examples:

• This machine is for cutting wood.
• I use my phone for work.

4.4 So that + clause

Used to express purpose, often with can/could/will/would. It can be used with the same subject or a different subject.

Examples:

• I’m studying so that I can pass the exam.
• She wrote it down so that she wouldn’t forget.

5. Result

Used to describe consequences.

5.1 So

Use a comma before so when it joins two independent clauses (two full sentences).

Examples:

• I was tired, so I went to bed.
• He missed the bus, so he was late.

Don’t add a comma when so means “very” (intensifier), e.g., I was so tired.

5.2 So + adjective + that / Such a + noun + that

Use so + adjective + that to show that a quality produces a result.

• The road was so icy that we stayed at home.

Use such a + noun + that (often with an adjective) to show that a thing or situation produces a result.

• It was such a long meeting that we missed the last train.

5.3 Therefore

Therefore is a more formal linking word.

Common patterns:

• (1) Sentence. Therefore, sentence.
• (2) Sentence; therefore, sentence. (more formal)

Examples:

• The road was closed. Therefore, we took another route.
• The road was closed; therefore, we took another route.
• She didn’t study. Therefore, she failed the exam.
• She didn’t study; therefore, she failed the exam.

5.4 As a result / Consequently

As a result and consequently introduce a consequence. Consequently is more formal. Like therefore, they can begin a new sentence or follow a semicolon.

Examples:

• The road was closed. As a result, we took another route.
• She had not studied; consequently, she failed the exam.

6. Register and Punctuation with Linking Adverbs

Connector	Register	Punctuation pattern
however	neutral to formal	Sentence. However, sentence. / Sentence; however, sentence.
therefore	formal	Sentence. Therefore, sentence. / Sentence; therefore, sentence.
as a result	neutral	Sentence. As a result, sentence. / Sentence; as a result, sentence.
consequently	formal	Sentence. Consequently, sentence. / Sentence; consequently, sentence.

7. Common mistakes

8. Summary

In this lesson you learned:

• because / as / since + clause; because of + noun phrase
• but / although / even though / however / despite / in spite of
• to / for / in order to / so that
• so / therefore / as a result / consequently
• how to combine clauses and ideas

Quick form reminders:

• because = reason (cause)
• to / in order to / so that = purpose (intention)
• however/therefore usually start a new sentence or follow a semicolon when linking two complete clauses